Understanding human communication

Human, or interpersonal, communication serves vital functions for us at both social and individual levels.

intrapersonal communication:  communication processes within one’s self.

interpersonal communication:  communication between two or more persons.

INTERPERSONAL MODEL

Harold Lasswell stated:  “A convenient way to describe an act of communication is to answer the
following questions:

Who
Says What
In Which Channel
To Whom
With What Effect?”
 

Lasswell also suggested communication has four vital functions in society:

(1)  to survey the environment to discover the dangers and opportunities in one’s surroundings.
 
(2)  to correlate responses to each other and to outside challenges.
 
(3)  to aid in the socialization and culturalization process, to pass on ideas of refinement, appreciation, and understanding.
 
(4)  to entertain ourselves with games, jokes, drama, and tales.
 

Most research on mass communication has been performed since World War II.  Our understanding of it
has largely focused on it as human behavior.  Despite all the wires, ink, paper, and other machinery and technology,
mass communication is really a human phenomenon.

Early mass communication researchers believed the individual reacted to media alone, rather than as a
group.  It was believed that messages conveyed by media had tremendous power go influence peoples’ attitudes
and behaviors.  This magic bullet theory, also known as the hypodermic theory, operated under two assumptions:

(1)  people receive information directly from the mass media and not through an intermediary.

(2)  that reaction is individual, not based on how other people might influence them.

As research progressed, we learned that people receive mass mediated messages from other people as well.
Society at large – including role models, families, and social institutions -- all play parts in influencing how and why
the individual will relate to the media message.  In other words, our attitudes and beliefs are probably shaped by
our own acquaintances and environments.

For instance, if I see or hear something via mass media, I can pass along that information.  Thus,
we developed the theory of opinion leaders and the two-step flow.  The two-step flow was exemplified in research
in 1940 by Lazarsfeld, Berelson, and Gaudet, who found that voters in the 1940 Presidential elections received their
information second hand from members of social groups identified as opinion leaders.

There may be more than one opinion leader and multiple groups involved in the two-step flow
process.  The opinion leader might be the first to inform us of mass mediated information, then we turn to the media
for more insight.  Or, we might receive the information and then become the opinion leader.  In other words, we may
check or reinforce information from individuals about media, or about media from individuals.

Individual Differences Theory -- rather than being uniform among the mass audience, the
effects of the media could now be seen as varying from person to person because of individual differences in
psychological structure.

In other words, we learned that individual audience members only allow the media to affect them
to a certain degree.  The degree of media effect depended on one’s attitudes and beliefs based on one’s environment,
or conditioning.  Also, individuals differ from each other and their groups -- people can think as individuals and do not
necessarily form groups which think as a collective, single-minded mass.

This can be seen in selective exposure, which means that we selectively expose ourselves to
certain types of information.  We make the choice as to what we will allow the media to tell us.

Secondly, there is selective perception, which means that what we already know or believe will
predetermine our reaction to a mass mediated message.

And, third we have selective retention which means that we decide individually what we want to
recall from a mass mediated message.

A related theory is Tichenor’s knowledge gap hypothesis which states:

As the infusion of mass media information into a social system increases, segments of the population with higher
socioeconomic status tend to acquire this information at a faster rate than the lower status segments, so that the
gap in knowledge between these segments tends to increase rather than decrease.

In other words, “some portions of the public tend to be chronically uninformed and that, in general, the greater the level of education, the greater the knowledge of various topics.”

Knowledge gap hypothesis describes three variables, but has at least four:

(1)  the level of mass media publicity in a particular social setting.

(2)  level of individuals’ education.

(3)  level of individuals’ knowledge

(4) time:

        (a)  over time acquisition of knowledge of a heavily publicized topic will proceed at a faster rate among better
               educated persons than among those with less education.

        (b)  at a given point in time there should be a higher correlation between acquisition of knowledge and education
              for topics highly publicized in the media than for topics less highly publicized.

              Time is an important variable because it has an impact on the level of media publicity, education, and ultimately,
              knowledge.

Uses and gratifications is another theory.  The theory presumes that we use media as a result of individual motivation to gain some sort of gratifying experience for having done it.

Focuses on the consumer, the audience member, rather than the message.

Another theory is the agenda-setting function:  the media create an agenda for our thoughts and influence
us in what seems important.  Media gatekeepers first determine what we will be exposed to, and further will decide
what amount of emphasis will be placed on it.  A major issue to the media will possibly make it a major issue to the
audience member.  And, vice versa.

Earlier we discussed opinion leaders and the two-step flow.  A related theory is the spiral of silence.  A
political researcher in Germany, Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann observed a tendency among some people to agree with
others to be accepted.

To run with the pack is a relatively happy state of affairs; but if you can’t, because you won’t
share publicly in what seems to be a universally acclaimed conviction, you can at least remain silent, as a second
choice, so that others can put up with you.

In other words, the spiral of silence is not just a matter of wanting to be on the winning side, it is
an attempt to avoid being isolated from one’s social group.  Threats of criticism from others were found to be
powerful forces in silencing individuals.

For example, smokers who are repeatedly criticized for advocating “smoker’s rights” were found
to remain silent rather than state their views on this subject in the presence of vocal nonsmokers.

George Gerbner’s Cultivation Theory deals with an important effect of television, which the theorists call
cultivation.  Basically, TV is believed to be a homogenizing agent in culture.

Because TV is the great common experience of everyone, it has the effect of providing a shared
way of viewing the world.  In other words, TV cultivates from infancy the very pre-dispositions and preferences
that used to be acquired from other primary sources.  TV has become the primary common source of socializations
and everyday information of an otherwise heterogeneous population.

Another theory which may have merit is the catharsis theory, which states that we may not be so much
motivated to act out what we see, as we our to live out that energy or motivation through the character’s actions.

The Effects Tradition:  The theory of mass communication effects has undergone a curious evolution in this
century.  To review what we have discussed so far in this course it is important to understand that media effects
research has been cyclical:

before 1950s and present, Powerful Effects

Noelle-Neumann believes that theory has gone full circle and that the limited -effects model was
an ideological response on the part of professional journalists who did not want to see themselves as manipulative.
(examples:  “magic bullet,” “spiral of silence”)

1960s, Limited Effects Model, Minimal Effects, or reinforcement approach

Viewed mass communication as more complicated than had previously been imagined.  It
envisioned an audience and situation ripe with mediating variables that would inhibit media effects.  (examples:
“individual differences,” selective exposure, perception, and retention, “uses  and gratifications,” “two-step flow”)

The media of mass communication are newspapers, books, magazines, records, the movies, radio, and television.

1.  Mass medium indicates singularity.

2.  Mass media indicates plurality.

The three important functions of public relations in the media system:

    (1)  a communications bridge:  dissemination of information can bridge communication gaps.  A good
          PR person can do it.

    (2)  service to the media:  historically, there has been conflict between the media and public relations
          professionals.  Perhaps problems could have been avoided.  For instance, a good PR person is
          honest and ethical.  Too often in the past, those who are less than professional have entered the
          field and given it a bad name.

          PR should be, and is, an ally to the media.  PR practitioners can write stories, provide
          information, provide contacts, etc.

          PR serves the press as a legitimate source of otherwise difficult if not impossible to get information.

          Likewise, the press serves PR as an outlet for its messages.  The rationale is that no medium has
          the resources needed to cover fully every event occurring within its circulation or coverage area.

    (3)  a defender in the court of public opinion:  too often individuals, organizations, and companies are
          convicted without being tried; nothing is more dangerous than when one forms an unfair opinion.

Two kinds of public relations used to counter various situations:

    (1)  preventive public relations:  when something is done before it happens.

    (2)  brushfire public relations:  swift, calculated action to stop a situation before it gets too ugly.

These activities involve a range from writing news releases and letters and giving speeches to arranging
special events.

Only about a tenth of PR activity – the tip of the iceberg – shows in speeches, releases, broadcast time,
pamphlets, and such.  The remainder of PR work is painstaking research, planning, and evaluation – the cyclical
process through which PR works.

New Media, New Challenges

Intranet:  A computer network within an organization.

Internet:  A large computer network connecting smaller computer networks.

Provider:  An entity who provides access to the Internet.

Newbie:  A new user of the Internet.

The World Wide Web (WWW):  The Internet’s newest and easiest tool for accessing information.  The Web
projects information on easy-to-read screens, or “pages.”  One can click a graphic or an underlined name, fact, or
concept that one wants to know more about and the click takes the person to another Web page with information
about that subject.

Browser:  A program used to navigate through the Web.

Search Engine:  A program used to access the information one needs.  Sometimes it takes longer than one
expects to connect to a Web site, and there are several factors which can cause that, such as the server one is using,
how far away the site is, and how fast one’s modem is.

E-mail:  (v) To send an electronic message to an individual or individuals; (n) Message sent to an individual or
individuals.

Telnet:  When one with a personal computer with a modem and telephone hookup can use that computer as a
terminal to link to one’s school library.  When one logs onto a computer with Telnet software, his/her computer
acts like a terminal, allowing one to do work at home that others can do on campus.

Usenet:  A collection of thousands of newsgroups with their own narrowcasted topic.  Each newsgroup is composed
of a series of electronic articles on a particular topic.  The topic can be anything.  In reality, Usenet is Internet’s
open-discussion forum.  Usenet allows anyone to take part in discussion with experts in a field in which one has an interest.

Newsgroup:  One of the thousands of groups with a name where users can discuss a narrowcasted topic.

Article:  A message that appears on Usenet news.

Thread:  A collection of articles in a newsgroup that have the same subject line.

Post:  (v) To submit an article to Usenet News; (n) A message that appears on Usenet News.

Crosspost:  (v) To post to more than one newsgroup; (n) A post sent to more than one newsgroup.

Spam:  (v) To post a message to many newsgroups; (n) A post sent to many newsgroups.

Follow-up:  To reply to another message and create a new post.

Flame:  (v) To make a mean spirited comment; (n) A mean spirited comment.

Moderator:  A person who acts as a gatekeeper for a newsgroup.  He/she reads all messages and
determines if they are appropriate to be posted for the rest of the newsgroup to read.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ):  Periodically posted by the moderator to answer frequently asked
questions of the group.

Provider:  An entity who provides access to Usenet News and/or the Internet.

Step 1.  Defining the problem (or opportunity):  Find out where you stand.  To do so involves probing and
monitoring knowledge, opinions, attitudes, and behaviors or those concerned with and affected by the acts and policies
of an organization.  This step is the foundation for all the other steps in the problem-solving process.

Informal or “Exploratory” Methods

Informal methods still dominate PR research even though highly developed social science methods are available.
Informal methods are useful.

Personal Contacts

Feedback from periodic personal visits can be encouraged, extended, and amplified in many ways.

A more structured use of personal contacts is exemplified by annual shareholder meetings held each year by publicly
owned corporations.

Key Informants

As a variation on personal contacts, this approach involves selecting and interviewing knowledgeable leaders and
experts.  These may be authors, editors, reporters, ministers, labor leaders, professors, civic leaders, bankers, and
special interest group leaders.  Some even consult bartenders and taxi drivers.  The basis for selecting key informants
is their perceived knowledge of an issue and their ability to represent others’ views.

Focus Groups and Community Forums

This means asking groups for ideas and feedback.  The range of groups runs from open town meetings to the highly
structured and videotaped focus group, a technique commonly used n both public relations and consumer marketing
research.  An effective moderator who is an able interviewer and facilitator of the group process is key to the success
of this approach.

Advisory Committees and Boards

A standing committee, panel, or board can sometimes be more useful than a single group session, particularly for
long-running programs and issues.

Ombudsman

The term ombudsman originated when the Swedish government established the first such position in 1713.  Two
kinds of ombudsmen are used.  One, true to the roots of the original, investigates and solves problems -- and has the
authority to take action on complaints.  The second, who at best parries (deflects, evades, or avoids) problems, often
is there to protect the bureaucracy and to create the illusion of a responsive organization -- unlike the original, this one
facilitates communication and seeks authority from others to implement remedies.

Call-In Telephone Lines

Toll-free 800 numbers are commonly used to obtain instant feedback and to monitor the concerns
and interests of various publics.  Johnson & Johnson tracked telephone calls during the consumer panic associate
with the Tylenol tragedy.

Mail Analysis

Another economical way of collecting information is periodic analysis of incoming mail.

On-Line Sources

New communication technology creates opportunities for friend and foe to talk about each other, as well as about
organizations, causes, and events.  Prudent PR practitioners now also monitor what is being said about their organizations on-line.

Field Reports

Many organizations have district agents, field representatives, or recruiters who live in and travel the territories served.
These agents should be trained to listen and observe and be given an easy, regular means of reporting their observations.
In this way they can serve as the eyes and ears of an organization.

Formal Methods

The purpose of both informal and formal methods is to gather accurate and useful information.  Formal methods are
designed to gather data from scientifically representative samples.  Formal methods help answer questions about
situations that simply cannot be answered adequately using informal approaches.  The danger is that
practitioner-researchers can become more concerned about the methods used than the purpose of the study.

Secondary Analysis and On-Line Databases

Doing research does not always call for gathering data yourself.  Secondary analysis reuses data gathered by
someone else, often for other purposes.

National, regional, and local surveys conducted by numerous governmental and commercial organizations

Commercial polling firms such as A.C. Nielsen, George Gallup, Elmo Roper, and Louis Harris

   Survey research centers maintained by almost all major universities

   Research data published by special-interest publications and scholarly journals

Most PR research is don using on-line databases such as Lexis-Nexis, Dun and Bradstreet, Dow Jones News/Retrieval, NewsNet, Data Times, Wise Wire, News Sites, and Burrelle’s Broadcast Database

Content Analysis

Content analysis is the application of systematic procedures for objectively determining what is being reported in
the media.

Surveys

Mailed questionnaires and in-person interviews are the two major approaches used in survey research.  The
adequacy of both depends on the sampling procedures used.  These can be mailed questionnaires or in-person interviews.

Step 2.  Planning and programming:  Information gathered in Step 1 is used to make decisions about
program publics, objectives, action and communication strategies, tactics, and goals.  Based on what we learned,
what should we change, do, or say?

Strategic Thinking

Strategic thinking involves predicting or establishing a desired future goal state, determining what forces will help
and hinder movement toward the goal, and formulating a plan for achieving the desired state.

Public Relations as Part of Strategic Thinking

Strategy can be defined as the determination of the basic long-term goals and objectives of an enterprise, and the
adoption of courses of action and the allocation of resources necessary for carrying out these goals.

Management Expectations

In many organizations, top management limits public relations participation in
management decision making.  Yet, the PR person is expected to defend the decisions of management.

Strategic Management

Strategic management represents the open systems approach to PR rather than the closed systems, reactive approach.
Strategic planning in public relations involves making decisions about program goals and objectives, identifying key
publics, setting policies or rules to guide selection of strategies, and determining strategies.  There must be a close
linkage between the overall program goal, the objective established for each of the publics, and the strategies selected.
The key point is that strategies are selected to achieve a particular outcome (as stated in a goal or objective).

Mission Statements

The four-step PR process is based on the assumption that the organization has clearly defined its overall mission and
goals and that PR is a part of the plan to achieve them.  Most organizations have a written statement of goals and
objectives, long range and immediate.  The purpose is to state succinctly why an organization exists.

Management by Objectives (MBO)

Some call this category management by objectives and results (MOR).  MBO systematically applies effective
management techniques to running an organization.  It specifies the outcomes (consequences, results, impact) to
be achieved, thereby establishing the criteria for selecting strategies, monitoring performance and progress, and
evaluating program effectiveness.

MBO operates at two levels of outcomes:

    Goals:  summative statements that spell out the overall outcomes of a program.

    Objectives:  represent the specific knowledge, opinion, and behavioral outcomes to be achieved for each
                      well-defined target public, what some call “key results.”

  Strategy and Tactics

   The terms strategy and tactics are often confused.

        Strategy:  represents the overall game plan.

        Tactics:  decisions made during the course of battle.

Reasons for Planning

Preparing a plan does not guarantee success, but it greatly enhances its chances.  Strategic planning, however, is
not universally accepted as part of PR practice.  Planning is for the purpose of making something happen or
preventing it from happening, for the purpose of exploiting a situation or remedying one.  PR practice is engaged
more often in trying to create a viewpoint or a happening than trying to prevent one and trying to take advantage
of an opportunity more often than trying to remedy an undesired situation.

Writing the Program

The task of writing an overall program or a proposal would rarely fall on a new member of a staff, but all members
understand how proposals and presentations evolve.

Program Plan

   A PR plan starts with the organization’s mission statement.

   Role of Working Theory

A program plan represents someone’s working theory of what has to be done to achieve a desired outcome.

  Defining Target Publics

  Practitioners define publics:

Nonpublics are people who do not face a problem or situation in which they are mutually involved with or affected by
either an organization or other people.  Their level of involvement is so low that they have no impact on the organization
and the organization has no recognizable impact on them.

Latent publics include people who are simply unaware of their connections to others and an organization with respect
to some issue or other problem situation.

Aware publics are those people who recognize that they are somehow affected by or involved in a problem situation
shared by others but have not communicated about it with others.

Active publics are those who do something about a situation when they begin to communicate and organize.

Demographics:  the statistical characteristics of human populations, such as age, sex,
socio-economic status, etc.

Psychographics:  the psychological characteristics of a person: personality, attitudes, and
lifestyle.

Writing Program Objectives

Objectives spell out the key results that must be achieved with each public to reach the program goal.

Planning for Program Implementation

  Writing Planning Scenarios
  Anticipating Disasters and Crises
  Establishing an Information Center
  Budgeting
  Pretesting Program Elements
  Selling the Plan

Step 3.  Taking action and communicating:  Implementing the program of action and communication designed to
achieve the specific objectives for each of the publics to accomplish the program goal.  Who should do and say it,
and when, where, and how?

 Communication Component of Strategy

  Semantics:  the meaning of words and other symbols.

  Communication barriers between people include:

  Individual perceptions of reality
  Incomplete or overzealous screening or abbreviating information before passing it on
  Word choice and interpretation
  Lack of attention on the receiver’s part
  Negative reactions to message content or sender-receiver relationship
  Individual life experiences

  Communication barriers within organizations include:

  Too much information
  Individual conflicts about content as well as difficulty with dry or technical material
  Divided audience attention
  Unwillingness to give and receive bad news
  Inability to build trust
  Formal restrictions on who may communicate with whom
  Lack of media richness
  Directive or authoritarian corporate structure
  Illegal or unethical messages
  Unnecessary messages
  Bad connections, acoustics, copy, and so forth

  How to Improve Communication

Five qualities of good communicators:

Perception
Precision
Credibility
Control
Congeniality

Step 4.  Evaluating the program:  Assessing the preparation, implementation, and results of the program.
Adjustments are made based on evaluation feedback on how it is or is not working.  How are we doing, or
how did we do?

Evaluation is continuous and central to the process.

Summative research after the program showing that program effects did or did not occur is of little
value.

Formative research before and during the program provides the information necessary for
comparing summative research findings with conditions at the beginning of the program and for making
midcourse corrections.