Chapter 6

Organizing the Body
of Speeches

The body is the bulk of the speech where the main points will be addressed, developed, and supported. The body is to the speech as the meat is to a sandwich.
Supporting materials are the garnish on the sandwich, such as the pickles, lettuce, tomatoes, onions, and condiments.

Why worry about organization? Why not just get some information together and then share it with others. Experienced speakers and writers know that
without organization it is easy to get off track and one idea or thought can easily lead to other ideas or thoughts. Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), a British
philosopher and sociologist, once observed: “When a man’s knowledge is not in order, the more of it he has, the greater will be his confusion of thought.”

Organization of a speech has much in common with many other activities in which we participate in the real world. Despite what you might think as a student,
the primary problem is in limiting what one says. Time limits are very important in public speaking, as they are in radio and TV and in so many other settings.
Although many students find this difficult to believe, most public speakers are more concerned about not getting enough time to speak.

Indeed, it is far easier to drone on and on than it is to compact the information in a brief and meaningful presentation. Such a phenomenon has much in common with
C. Northcote Parkinson’s (1957) eponymous “Parkinson’s Law,” which states: “Work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion” (p. 2). He expounded:
“The thing to be done swells in importance and complexity in a direct ratio with the time to be spent” (p. 2).

Few people ever complain about a speaker ending early.

Basic Organizational Patterns of Speeches

The effective speaker will use appropriate transitions to get from one point to the other, from the introduction to the body, and from the body to the conclusion.

There are several patterns that one can use to organize and outline ideas into a coherent and interesting speech. The speaker’s topic or subject matter will typically dictate
which organizational pattern will be the most appropriate. Be sure that the pattern of choice is a simple and logical one that can best relate the central idea to the audience.
In other words, the best option is the one that is most audience–centered, as we discussed in Chapter 4. Depending on the pattern chosen, the body can contain two, three,
four, or five major points, or parts. Some of these patterns can be used simultaneously, as will be pointed out during the discussion of each. Furthermore, different patterns may
be used in different parts of the same speech. The introduction may follow a spatial pattern, but the main points might be arranged chronologically. There are several established
organizational patterns and some are used more frequently than others. Among the more widely used patterns are chronological (time), spatial (space), process (example),
topical (categorical), causal (cause–effect or effect–cause), and problem–solution (need–remedy or disease–remedy). Other useful patterns are ascending or
descending order (most to least important or least to most important), elimination (method of residues), journalistic (five Ws and the H), deductive order, inductive order,
and motivational (action response).

The Outline

The outline is the foundation, blueprint, or skeleton of the presentation. Not surprisingly, there is a strong correlation between good outlines and good speeches.

When outlining, be consistent. If you use phrases, known as topical outlining, then it is necessary to use phrases throughout.

Also remember that in proper outlining, I needs II, A needs B, 1 needs 2, and a needs b. When you break a heading into subordinate headings, you must get at least
two lower–level headings. If you have a single heading, it probably belonged with the previous major heading.

Chapter 7

(Part Two)

Gathering and Implementing
Supporting Materials

Types of Visual Aids

Computers. Computers are very useful and versatile for presenting a variety of visual aids. For one thing, it is easy to transport laptop computers and/or data from
meeting to meeting, eliminating the need for other bulky supporting materials of the past. The presenter should be aware that screens/monitors can be too small
and, depending on the lighting, can be difficult to see due to glare. Computer presentations can consist of slide shows, Web pages, moving images, both text and
graphic images, etc. Perhaps the most popular and versatile computer program used is PowerPoint, which can provide a convergent presentation using a variety
of the aforementioned tools.

      As with anything else, if you don’t know how to use PowerPoint, then don’t try to use it in your speeches just because other students may be using it.
This isn’t a competition. Visual aids may be required, but PowerPoint is but one type of visual aid.

Overhead Projectors. Overhead projectors, which may display transparencies or opaque documents, remain a highly effective visual presentation device.

Digital Presenters or Document Cameras. Digital presenters or document cameras are kind of an offshoot of overhead projectors, but they are much more
versatile. Basically, the document camera is attached to a small platform fitted with a camera and lights. The document camera can make use of transparencies,
hard copies, or opaque objects that can fit onto the platform. Even better, the camera head can be rotated to capture other images around the classroom, such
as the class itself or a person who is speaking. Depending on your own particular setup, the captured image is then sent to a display device, such as a video
projector or television monitor

Objects. Objects can make very good visual aids for some presentations, especially in speeches to demonstrate how to do something (instructional speech)
or to show how something works. They can be large or small, but they need to be manageable.

Poster Boards. Poster boards are also objects, and although they seem old fashioned, they are still quite useful and versatile.
A poster can be large or small, but must be of a size that the entire audience can comfortably view. If your setting is equipped with
a document camera, then you can make a smaller poster for display.

Videotapes, Audiotapes, Compact Discs (CD), and Digital Video Discs (DVD). Videotapes, audiotapes, compact discs (CD), and digital video discs (DVD)
are tricky devices to use as visual aids and should be used with caution.

Handouts. Handouts are sheets of paper or other materials given to members of the audience. The presenter can create handouts, which may take
the form of outlines, copies of articles, photos, or a combination of text, graphics, and other visuals. Handouts are okay for small, informal groups
but can nonetheless be distracting because the audience tends to read the handout instead of listening to the speaker.

Chalkboards and Whiteboards. Chalkboards and whiteboards (non–electronic and electronic) allow the presenter to create visual aids as the speech
progresses. Although an advantage of these visuals is flexibility, they are very informal and are too primitive for many settings and situations.

Flip Charts. Flip charts are large sheets of paper attached at the top and held by an easel. They look like a large spiral notebook or a giant legal pad.
The advantage of flip charts is that the presenter can produce the visuals ahead of time so that the pages can literally be flipped as the presentation progresses.

You and/or Other Students or Audience Members. You and/or other students or audience members can be effective visual aids. A speaker can
influence the message by his/her manner of dressing, the use of nonverbal gestures and movements, how he/she looks physically, etc.

      There are so many ways to be your own visual aid, such as demonstrating sign language, sports, and other activities. Other students can also be asked
to participate as visual aids. Note that it is best if there is pre–planning so that the student is not caught by surprise.

The Best-Laid Plans

What do you do when something doesn’t work? When it comes to having your visual aids ready for the speech, make sure that you have all the

bases covered. Planning is critical. First of all, be sure you know how to use the technology that is available in your setting.

Be sure to have printouts of your PowerPoint slides and even copy them to transparencies.

Make sure you have a backup disc in case the one you brought doesn’t work.

If you bring your own laptop for the presentation, make certain that the settings are correct and compatible with the classroom equipment.

If you plan to show an Internet site in your presentation, make sure that there is access to the Internet. If there is no access, then you might consider saving examples to a disc.

 
Chapter 8

Effective Delivery Style:
Voice and Appearance

It is imperative for speakers to understand that “a speech is more than ideas” (Klepper & Gunther, 1994, p. 44). Indeed, a speech is “sound” and “performance” and
“focusing on the ideas alone is like trying to sell a car without a paint job” because “the shimmer of the paint…attracts buyers as much as what’s under the hood” (p. 44).

      There are four methods or modes of delivery: impromptu, read from a prepared manuscript, memorized, and extemporaneous. The speaker must decide
how the speech will be delivered verbally and nonverbally.

company’s position, and reading was his only option.

In a Manner of Speaking: Your Speaking Voice

The vocal presentation of a speech is just as important as the method of delivery. Although the voice and delivery work in concert together, they can also create
barriers, as we learned in the communication process in Chapter 2. Like it or not, people judge you on the words you choose to use.

A good, clear speaking voice absent any annoying characteristics is important.

Pitch

Pitch is one’s vocal frequency range and its limits can be stretched tremendously. Monotonic means one pitch.

Loudness (Volume)

Loudness, or volume, is the dynamic level of your voice. As a speaker, you should always be sensitive to managing your own volume. A boring person is typically
mono–dynamic, or one loudness. Loudness typically varies with a given situation, but one should ordinarily try to speak as though one person is listening within a
range of a few feet. You should always remember that you are speaking to one person at a time.        

Pace (Rate)

Pace, or rate, is the speed at which someone speaks, and an effective communicator will vary voice speed.

Enunciation (or Articulation), Pronunciation, and Emphasis

Enunciation (or articulation), pronunciation, and emphasis are also part of the vocal process. Enunciation focuses on individual components of a word,
and pronunciation centers on the word as a whole. Emphasis occurs when one stresses certain words or sounds to make them more noticeable. It can also be known as stress.

       Pronunciation can be another thing altogether. If you are uncertain how a word should be pronounced, find out. If necessary, use an alternate word that
you can pronounce correctly. When preparing your speech, an important detail to keep in mind is that written words are different from spoken words.

       Likewise, one can utter a variety of words or vocal segregates or gap fillers that are not typically found on paper, such as “ah,” “um,” “uh,”
“like,” “so,” “well,” “you know,” “then,” “just,” “and,” etc.

Inflection

Inflection is a combination of variations in emphasis, pace, dynamics, and pitch. Inflection is very useful in enhancing understanding by the
receiver, which is the ultimate goal for a public speaker.

Conversational Quality

Conversational quality, which we discussed extensively in Chapter 1, is something that can be applied to public speaking. Although a speech may be
formal, public speakers should try to sound conversational. A major difference between conversation and public speaking is that speakers invest a considerable
amount of time and preparation for their speeches.

Physical Appearance

As discussed in Chapter 2, body communication (not body language) is very important. Physical appearance is body communication, and like the
speaking voice, it has a great impact on the degree of effectiveness achieved in public speaking or in any other communication situation, such as
mass communication. People not only judge us by our words and how we sound, but they judge us by how we look and on how we conduct
ourselves nonverbally. How we appear to others can be affected by neatness, clothing, posture, arms, hands, feet, head, standing or sitting,
facial expression, gestures, movement, walking to/from the podium, etc.

Once at the podium, one’s nonverbal communication, especially gesturing, has an impact on a speaker’s effectiveness in delivering a speech.

Visual aids, if they are employed, can also have an impact on your delivery.

Chapter 10

Persuasive Speeches:  Engineering Consent

It is important that we understand persuasion for two very basic reasons. First, we need to learn how to persuade effectively to meet our own objectives. Second, we need to understand
persuasion so that we can understand the persuasive tactics that others use on us.

On a daily basis, we are all bombarded by persuasive messages. Someone is always trying to get us to do something, to buy something, to go somewhere, to think or act in certain ways,
to change our minds, to support or oppose people, things, issues, etc. The list could go on and on and on.

Persuasion Defined?

According to the Merriam–Webster Online Dictionary (available at http://www.m–w.com/), persuasion is “the act or process or an instance of persuading,” “a persuading argument,”
and “the ability to persuade.” The same dictionary defines persuade as “to move by argument, entreaty, or expostulation to a belief, position, or a course of action” or “to plead with.”
Note that persuasion is not the same as “force”. A good persuasive speaker will not seek to impose his/her will on others.

Persuasion and Argumentation

There is some confusion when it comes to persuasion and argumentation. These two areas are not exactly the same, but both share some common ground.

Argumentation specialist Trudy Govier (1992):

Arguments are found where there is some controversy or disagreement about a subject and people try to resolve that disagreement rationally.
When they put forward arguments, they offer reasons and evidence to try to persuade others of their beliefs. Consider the following short argument:

Eating more than one egg a day is dangerous because eggs contain cholesterol and cholesterol can cause strokes and heart attacks.

Reasons are given for the claim that it is dangerous to eat more than one egg a day. (p. 1)

Using the “egg” example, the specific purpose might be: “To persuade the audience to avoid the unhealthy practice of eating more than one egg per day.” In a persuasive speech,
the speaker might organize his/her points into a problem–solution pattern. The central idea or proposition for persuasive speeches (which is discussed later in this chapter)
could be the same as for an argument: “Eating more than one egg a day is dangerous because eggs contain cholesterol, which can cause strokes and heart attacks.”
The problem is cholesterol in eggs. The solution is to stop eating too many eggs.

Persuasion and argumentation are both positive concepts, but many people tend to view them negatively. It is important that the two do not become confused with the
more negative connotations held by words often confused with persuasion and argumentation: coercion and bickering. However, some people try to interchange
the words. Persuasion does not use force, as does coercion, which includes threats both real and implied. Bickering is merely petty quarrelling and has nothing to
do with arguing. It comes from Middle English word bikeren, which means “to attack.”

Persuasive and Expository Speaking

As we saw in Chapter 4, a persuasive speech has much in common with expository speaking and offers plenty of information about a subject.

Although persuasive speaking is very similar to informative speaking, it goes a step or two further than informative speeches.

Persuasive speeches are designed to influence attitudes, beliefs, or actions that are consistent with the speaker’s specific purpose. As former Chrysler CEO Lee Iacocca advised:
“…you should always get your audience to do something before you finish. It doesn’t matter what it is—write your congressman, call your neighbor, consider a certain proposition.
In other words, don’t leave without asking for the order” (Iacocca & Novak, 1984, p. 54).

We have learned about the speaker’s purpose, topic, and audience, organization of the speech, supporting materials in a speech, and delivery of a speech. All of these categories
apply to persuasive speaking. Persuasive speaking may indeed be somewhat more complicated and complex than informational or occasional speaking, but in reality it is
just a step beyond informative speaking.

Like good informative speakers, effective persuasive speakers build their speeches around significant supporting materials (facts, evidence, and proof) that are presented in an interesting
and appealing manner. The speaker appeals to the listener’s motives and allows that listener to make up his/her own mind.

There are basically three purposes of persuasive speaking: to convince, to actuate, and to reinforce, inspire, or motivate.

Speech to Convince

A speech to convince is one in which the speaker hopes to change the audience’s opinion about something and/or to get them to commit—
at least mentally—to a certain point of view or perspective.

Speech to Actuate

A speech to actuate tries to get the audience past the belief or agreement stage and attempts to get the listener to do something, such as vote,
lose weight, or quit smoking. Whether the audience member immediately acts on what the speaker wants does not determine the successfulness of the speech.

Speech to Reinforce, Inspire, or Motivate

A speech to reinforce, inspire, or motivate is one that seeks to awaken, arouse, excite, or challenge the passion and emotion of an audience already in agreement
with our perspective. It is designed to keep in the fold those audience members who are already in agreement with the speaker.

Classical Rhetoric and Persuasive Speaking

The classical rhetorical approach to persuasion can be traced to Marcus Fabius Quintilian, a Spanish native who pleaded cases in the courts and later became
the mentor to young men who would become great orators of Rome. Quintilian’s approach held that there are five steps involved in the construction or composition
of persuasive speeches: invention, disposition or arrangement, expression or style, memory, and delivery or action (Bizzell & Herzberg, 1990, pp. 3–4).

Invention

Invention is the discovery of effective persuasive strategies and arguments or proofs that are appropriate for persuasion. According to Aristotle’s view, rhetoric is
discovering every available means of persuasion. A persuasive presentation differs little from other forms of persuasive communication today, such as speeches,
commercials, news releases, etc. Politicians and representatives of governmental institutions and entities have to learn over and over again the basic principle of rhetoric—
it is a valid part of civilized society to seek to persuade—but the persuader, the rhetorician, had best not lie.

The proposition is a major consideration in developing effective persuasive strategies and arguments. The persuasive speaker moves toward a proposition that the
speaker intends to affirm or deny. In a persuasive speech, the proposition is the central idea. The proposition, like the central idea, is a complete sentence that tells
the listener the speaker’s position on an issue. Then, using evidence and proof, the speaker attempts to move the listener toward accepting the proposition. Note the
word attempts, as persuasion is a process that may end in success or failure. As we first discussed in Chapter 4, in persuasive speaking we must concern ourselves
with propositions of fact, propositions of value, and propositions of policy.

Propositions of Fact

When the speaker states the proposition, it should be understood that some facts are easily verified or proved and others are not. There are some things that are absolutely true and unquestionable.
A speaker will take one of two positions: that what is proposed is true or that what is proposed is false. Evidentiary support will be given to prove the trueness or falseness of a proposition.

Propositions of Value

Propositions of value are concerned with principles, standards, qualities, or concepts that are deemed by the speaker to be worthwhile or desirable. It is important to
understand that value has nothing to do with personal opinion. If you say you enjoy something, then that is your personal preference.

In regard to values, public speaking professors Dan O’Hair and Rob Stewart (1999) explained: “Rather than attempting to prove the truth of something, as in claims of fact, a
speaker arguing a claim of value tries to show that something is right or wrong, good or bad, worthy or unworthy” (p. 374). Harry Beckwith (1997), an advertising and marketing
professional, summed it up this way: “Tell people—in a single compelling sentence—why they should buy from you instead of someone else” (p. 199).

Propositions of Policy

A proposition of policy can take either an affirmative or negative position. Simply put, the speaker will try to persuade the audience that something should be done (affirmative) or should not
be done (negative). Note that propositions of policy ordinarily contain the word “should.”

As you can see from the examples, a proposition of policy is more complicated than speeches of fact or value because the speaker also incorporates both of those concepts in order to get the
audience to adopt the policy that is being proposed. If the speech were a sales presentation, the speaker might want the listener to buy his/her product or service. In such case, the policy would be:
“You should buy my laundry detergent.” The value: “I am an expert on laundry detergent and it is better than the competitors’ products.” The fact: “I will give you your money back if
my detergent isn’t better than the others.”

Whether your proposition is one of fact, value, or policy, you will need to support your claim. As such, there are three appeals, evidence, or types of proof used by persuasive speakers:
personal proof, psychological proof, and logical proof. Aristotle called them ethos, pathos, and logos and communication scholars continue to use the terms today. Most experts on
persuasion seem to agree that some combination of these three kinds of proof is necessary for successful persuasion to take place.

      Ethos, or personal proof, focuses on the speaker as a person.

Many experts believe, as was mentioned in Chapter 8, that the speaker is the message. If a speaker is to be successful at persuasion, it is imperative that the audience sees in him/her a
person who personifies intelligence, experience, capability, proficiency, candidness, honesty, trustworthiness, and cordiality—things that add up to give a speaker credibility or charisma with the audience.

Some speakers are well known to the audience in advance, and that can be bad or good. Certainly, a prestigious speaker with a good reputation beforehand would have an advantage
with the audience. A speaker needs only to possess some of those qualities to be successful, because most of us believe that those who have a number of good qualities would also
have many other positive qualities. In communication, we call it the halo effect. Likewise, there is a reverse halo effect, as a speaker with a questionable reputation would have a
major obstacle to overcome. If we see something negative in a speaker, we automatically assume that the person must have other negative attributes.

      
As we discussed in Chapters 4 and 5, identification is very important in persuasive speaking. It is easier to get someone to believe, or for us to believe someone else, when we share common ground.

Pathos, or psychological proof, appeals to the attitudes and motives of the audience. Attitude is our conscious predisposition to act in certain ways under certain circumstances or
situations. One’s attitude can be good, bad, or indifferent, depending on the circumstance or situation. We are not born with attitude, but we develop it through our own experiences,
exigencies, and constraints. As a result, some experts believe that perception is not in the sender, but is in the receiver. Motive is different from attitude, and is an unconscious,
spontaneous desire or physiological need that causes one to act. In other words, motive is normally accompanied by physiological change. Attitude has more to do with one’s
mental state and motive is more physiological, but the two can interact.

An effective persuasive speaker will not jump right into the persuasive proposition. Most audiences need cultivating and any abruptness can turn them against the speaker and his/her views.

As discussed earlier in the chapter, many people do not realize that they have been targeted by all manner of persuasive speakers and methods. They don’t seem to understand that others
have learned how to manipulate them through physical motives and social motives. More than 50 years ago, psychologist A.H. Maslow devised a hierarchy of human needs
and motivation that to this day continues to help us understand persuasion. Maslow built a pyramid consisting of the base needs of human beings. The greater needs form the
foundation and lesser needs are found successively as the pyramid grows upward.

Logos, or logical proof, basically means that the speaker presents evidence and then draws conclusions from that evidence.

If a speaker is more credible with the audience, there is that much less evidence the speaker will have to provide. Nonetheless, a speaker should not assume that his/her credibility profoundly
influences the audience. A speaker should not take a risk, but should always present sufficient evidence to the audience. As with all the supporting materials we discussed in Chapter 7,
the speaker must make sure that the evidence is sound.

Arrangement

As with any speech, organization is critical. Arrangement, of course, includes the selection of an effective organizational pattern (as we discussed in Chapter 6) and employment of proper persuasive techniques.

Expression or Style

Expression or style is the use of proper, suitable, and impressing language. solution pattern, the speaker might ask a question regarding an alternative solution, such as: “That isn’t the kind
of result that you are looking for, is it?”

Language, or the words the speaker chooses to implement, is important to the persuasive effort. It is important to note that language can be effective or ineffective depending
on the speaker, the message, the audience, and the situation. Use appropriate words that the entire audience can understand and to which they can relate. A speaker should use
proper grammar and should pronounce words correctly.

Memory

Memory is the utilization of devices such as catchphrases or even note cards to help us speak extemporaneously. It also involves extensive practice or rehearsal of the speech
by the speaker. An effective persuasive speaker would rely less on note cards than would an informative speaker. To be persuaded, an audience needs to be convinced that
the speaker is an authority on the subject.

Delivery or Action

Delivery or action is the actual vocal and physical presentation of the speech as we discussed in Chapter 8. Quintilian believed that in every speech a speaker must inform, move,
and please. In other words, the speaker’s message may be important, but if it is presented to the audience in a lackluster manner then it won’t be very effective.

Listening to and Analyzing Persuasion

Many students who enter a public speaking class are well aware that they will be expected to give speeches. Few understand that a major objective is to learn about that
process so they not only will know how to communicate to others, but also will learn what others do to communicate to them. In today’s society, we are constantly bombarded
with information and much of it is designed to persuade us to act or think in certain ways. As I tell students in my classes, “You need to understand how to persuade so
that you can understand how others try to persuade you.” This is nothing new, but with the technologies available today, persuaders have even more channels at their disposal.

Chapter 11

Occasional Speeches:

Sincerity, Originality,
and Brevity

Sometimes in our lives and careers, we are asked to speak on occasions that do not call for purely informative or persuasive speeches. The key word here is, of course, occasion.
Occasional, or ceremonial, speaking situations can run a wide gamut and can be informative, persuasive, entertaining, or some combination of any or all.

In this book considerable attention has been given to assessing the similarities and differences between public speaking and conversation. Occasional speeches typically
share even more commonality with conversation than do other informative and persuasive speeches.

One could conclude that occasional speaking is indeed a form of entertainment.

Unique Considerations for Occasional Speeches

It is important to understand that the occasional speaker, like the informative or persuasive speaker, must have something to offer the audience.

Overall, occasional speeches should be sincere, original, and brief. There are several other important and unique characteristics that need to be considered. These
include atmosphere, content, organization, length, and presentation style.

Atmosphere

As we learned in Chapter 2, communication always takes place in a context that will ultimately affect the nature and intent of the speaker’s message. Both the
occasion and the physical dimension (where the speech takes place) have a tremendous impact on what the speaker will say and how it will be said. The audience
expects a certain atmosphere to be present in a given situation and the speaker should add to that atmosphere. Some situations lend themselves to solemnity or
seriousness and others are made for frivolity and silliness. Other occasions can fall somewhere in between.

Content

As with atmosphere, the audience has expectations about the content of the occasional speech. Appropriateness, fairness, and accuracy are givens. Occasional
speeches are not appropriate for finding fault, proving your point, bringing up something unpleasant, or inciting controversy. 

Organization

The organization of occasional speeches has much in common with other forms of speeches in that they include an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. As with all
other types of speeches, occasional speeches should be easily understood by the audience. A speaker should choose appropriately from among the organizational
patterns that we previously examined in Chapter 6.

Length

The length of a speech is always an important consideration. Most audience members neither expect nor want an occasional speaker to go on and on and on. People
have things to do and places to go, so the effective speaker should be aware of that.

Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address, which we will examine later in the chapter, is a prime example of a brief occasional speech. It is not particularly well known that the speaker
prior to Lincoln went on and on for two hours. In contrast, Lincoln was extremely brief—his speech consisted of just 268 words—and the audience was very surprised by
that brevity. The Gettysburg Address is considered a great speech and a major part of that may very well have to do with its short duration. The bottom line is that it is
probably better to err on the side of brevity when making an occasional speech.

Presentation Style

Although a speaker should always be aware of the occasion and location of the speech, these things typically bear more importance in occasional speaking. It is always
helpful to know ahead of time when the speaker will be called upon, to know in what kind of venue or facility the speech will be given, and to know whether the group
being addressed has specific expectations that could impact what will be said and how it will be delivered.

Types of Occasional Speeches

Speeches for Sociality and Courtesy

Speeches for sociality and courtesy tend to be more informative than persuasive and they can include introducing someone; making an announcement or announcements;
presenting a gift or award or accepting a gift or award; welcoming or responding to a welcome; or making or responding to a toast.

Speeches for Commemoration

Speeches for commemoration can be used to eulogize, to bid farewell, to dedicate something, or to recognize an anniversary of someone or something.
Commemorative speeches can even be combinations of eulogies, farewells, tributes, dedications, or anniversaries.

Speeches for Counseling

Speeches of counsel are very similar to speeches for commemoration, but the difference is that speeches of counsel tend to learn toward persuasion. They are indeed both
occasional and ceremonial, but the speaker also seeks to get the audience to act or think a certain way. Speeches for counsel are exemplified by inaugural addresses,
nominations or nomination acceptances, declarations, commencement addresses, and sermons.